Essays

Leo Strauss on Modern Political Science

– Svetozar Minkov and Rasoul Namazi eds., "Leo Strauss on Modern Political Science: TwoPreviously Unpublished Manuscripts," Review of Politics, 79, 2017.b
Two previously unpublished lectures by Leo Strauss on modern political science, the first delivered in 1956, the second between 1957-1962.

Restatement

– "Restatement," Interpretation, Vol. 36, No. 1 (Fall 2008).  Reprinted in On Tyranny: An Interpretation of Xenophon's Hiero, Including the Strauss-Kojeve Correspondence, Victor Gourevitch and Michael S. Roth, eds., University of Chicago Press, 1961, reprinted 1991, 2000.  
Excerpt: A social science that cannot speak of tyranny with the same confidence with which medicine speaks, for example, of cancer, cannot understand social phenomena as what they are.  It is therefore not scientific.  Present day social science finds… More

Die Religionskritik des Hobbes

– "Die Religionskritik des Hobbes: Ein Beitrag zum verstandnis der Aufklarung," Gesammelte Schriften: Band 3, Heinrich Meier, ed., 2008.

The Re-education of Axis Countries Concerning the Jews

– "The Re-education of Axis Countries Concerning the Jews," Review of Politics, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Fall 2007).  Talk given on November 7, 1943, at the New School for Social Research.
Excerpt: A nation may take another nation as its model: but no nation can presume to educate another nation which has a high tradition of its own. Such a presumption creates resentment, and you cannot educate people who resent your being their educator. If… More

What Can We Learn from Political Theory?

– "What Can We Learn from Political Theory?" Review of Politics, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Fall 2007).  Talk given in July 1942 at the New School for Social Research.
Excerpt: The title of this lecture is not entirely of my own choosing. I do not like very much the term political theory; I would prefer to speak of political philosophy. Since this terminological question is not entirely verbal, I beg leave to say a few… More

Reason and Revelation

– "Reason and Revelation," Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem, Cambridge University Press, 2006.  Talk given on April 27, 1948, at Hartford Theological Seminary.
Excerpt: Today, we do not have a direct access to what philosophy originally meant. Our concept of philosophy is derived from modern philosophy, i.e. a derivative form of philosophy. Modern philosophy did not start from a reactivation of the original… More

The Living Issues of German Postwar Philosophy

– "The Living Issues of German Postwar Philosophy," Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem, by Heinrich Meier, Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Excerpt: But Husserl was not the only superior mind who was responsible for the great change we have been witnessing. At least as influential in this respect was the work of Nietzsche. Nietzsche changed the intellectual climate of Germany and perhaps of the… More

German Nihilism

– "German Nihilism," Interpretation, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Spring 1999).  Corrections to "German Nihilism," Interpretation, Vol. 30, No. 1 (Fall 2000).  Talk given on February 26, 1941 at the New School for Social Research.
Excerpt: What is nihilism? And how far can nihilism be said to be a specifically German phenomenon? I am not able to answer these questions; I can merely try to elaborate them a little. For the phenomenon which I am going to discuss, is much too complex, and… More

Freud on Moses and Monotheism

– "Freud on Moses and Monotheism," Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, Kenneth Hart Green, ed., State University of New York Press, 1997.
Excerpt: The first sentence is: “To deny a people the man whom it praises as the greatest of its sons is not a deed to be undertaken lightheartedly–especially by one belonging to that people.”  The denial of Freud is directed against… More

Cohen und Maimuni

– "Cohen und Maimuni," Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2, Heinrich Meier, ed.,  1997.

Der Konspektivismus

– "Der Konspektivismus," Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2, Heinrich Meier, ed.,  1997.

Existentialism

– "Existentialism," Interpretation, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Spring 1995).  Talk given in February 1956 at the University of Chicago.  Reprinted in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism.
The deepest root of the west is a specific understanding of being, a specific experience of being. The specifically western experience of being led to the consequence that the ground of grounds was forgotten and the primary experience of being was used only… More

The Problem of Socrates

– "The Problem of Socrates," Interpretation, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Spring 1995).  Talk given on April 17, 1970, at St. John's College, Annapolis.
Excerpt: [I was told that the local paper has announced that I lecture tonight on “The problems of Socrates.” This was an engaging printing error; for there is more than one problem of Socrates, in the first place, the problem with which Socrates… More

Why We Remain Jews

– "Why We Remain Jews: Can Jewish Faith and History Still Speak to Us?" Leo Strauss: Political Philosopher and Jewish Thinker, ed. Kenneth L. Deutsch and Walter Nicgorski, Rowman and Littlefield, 1994.
Excerpt: I take more serious cases; first, the anti-Judaism of late classical antiquity, when we (and incidentally also the Christians) were accused by the pagan Romans of standing convicted of hatred of the human race. I contend that it was a very high… More

Two Letters to Eric Voegelin

– "Two Letters to Eric Voegelin," Eric Voegelin, Alfred Schutz, Leo Strauss and Aron Gurwitsch: Briefwechsel uber Die Neue Wissenschaft der Politik, Verlag Karl Alber, 1993.

The Strauss – Voegelin Correspondence 1934-1964

– "The Strauss - Voegelin Correspondence 1934-1964," Faith and Political Philosophy, translated and edited by Perry Emberley and Barry Cooper, The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993.
Excerpt: People like Cairns (perhaps without knowing it) arrived from the Platonic-Aristotelian concept of science–indeed, not at their position, which is not worth discussing–but at the rejection of, for example, your position.  Now, you will… More

How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy

– "How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy," The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss, Thomas L. Pangle, ed., University of Chicago Press, 1989. Complete, unedited version published as "How to Study Medieval Philosophy," Interpretation, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Spring 1996).
Excerpt: The attempt to understand a philosopher of the past better than he understood himself presupposes that the interpreter considers his insight superior to the insight of the old author.  Kant made this quite clear when suggesting that one can… More

On the Euthyphron

– "On the Euthyphron," The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss, Thomas L. Pangle, ed., University of Chicago Press, 1989. Complete, unedited version published as "An Untitled Lecture on Plato's Euthyphron," Interpretation, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Fall 1996).
Excerpt: The subject matter of the Euthyphron is piety. For more than one reason the Euthyphron does not tell us what Plato thought about piety. It certainly does not transmit to us Plato’s final or complete view of piety. Still the work transmits to us… More

The Problem of Socrates: Five Lectures

– "The Problem of Socrates: Five Lectures," The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss, Thomas L. Pangle, ed., University of Chicago Press, 1989. Published, complete and unedited, as "The Origins of Political Science and the Problem of Socrates: Six Public Lectures," Interpretation, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Winter 1996).
Excerpt: For according to Plato as well as to Aristotle, to the extent to which the human problem cannot be solved by political means it can be solved only by philosophy, by and through the philosophic way of life. Plato too presents men who are not good or… More

Thucydides: The Meaning of Political History

– "Thucydides: The Meaning of Political History," The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss, Thomas L. Pangle, ed., University of Chicago Press, 1989.
Excerpt: This lecture forms part of a series: The Western Tradition–Its Great Ideas and Issues, The Western tradition is threatened today as it never was heretofore. For it is now threatened not only from without but from within as well. It is in a… More

Correspondence

– "Correspondence," Independent Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 5-6 (1988).  Correspondence with Karl Lowith on Nietzsche from 1935.

Exoteric Teaching

– "Exoteric Teaching," Interpretation, Vol. 14, No. 1 (January 1986).  Reprinted in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism.
Excerpt: The distinction between exoteric (or public) and esoteric (or secret) teaching is not at present considered to be of any significance for the understanding of the thought of the past: the leading encyclopedia of classical antiquity does not contain… More

Note on Maimonides’ Treatise on the Art of Logic

– "Note on Maimonides' Treatise on the Art of Logic," Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Excerpt: Toward the end of chapter 11 and in chapter 13, Maimonides begins to refer again to the Arabic grammarian.  In chapter 14, the concluding chapter, he speaks above all of the division of the sciences and at greatest length of political science. … More

Note on Maimonides’ Letter on Astrology

– "Note on Maimonides' Letter on Astrology," Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Excerpt: The addressees of this Letter had asked Maimonides for his view about astrology.  After having praised their question, he says that if they had known his Mishneh Torah, they would have known his opinion on the subject.  He uses the first person… More

Correspondence Concerning Modernity

– "Correspondence Concerning Modernity," Independent Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 4 (1983).  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: Gesammelte Schriften, Band 3.

Progress or Return?

– "Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Civilization," Modern Judaism, Vol. 1, No. 1 (May 1981).  Reprinted in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism.
Excerpt: The title of this lecture indicates that progress has become a problem-that it could seem as if progress has led us to the brink of an abyss, and it is therefore necessary to consider alternatives to it. For example, to stop where we are or else, if… More

On the Interpretation of Genesis

– "On the Interpretation of Genesis," Revue francaise d'anthropologie, Vol. 21, No. 2 (January - March 1981).
Excerpt: I want to begin with the remark that I am not a biblical scholar; I am a political scientist specializing in political theory. Political theory is frequently said to be concerned with the values of the Western world. These values, as is well known,… More

The Mutual Influence of Theology and Philosophy

– "The Mutual Influence of Theology and Philosophy," Independent Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 3 (1979).
Excerpt: When we attempt to return to the roots of Western civilization , we observe soon that Western civilization has two r0ots which are in conflict with each other, the biblical and the Greek philosophic, and this is to begin with a very disconcerting… More

An Unspoken Prologue to a Public Lecture at St. John’s

– "An Unspoken Prologue to a Public Lecture at St. John's," Interpretation, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 1978).
Excerpt: Nothing affected us as profoundly in the years in which our minds took their lasting directions as the thought of Heidegger.  This is not the place for speaking of that thought and its effects in general.  Only this much must be said: Heidegger,… More

Letter to Helmut Kuhn

– Letter to Helmut Kuhn, Independent Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 2 (1978).
Excerpt: Forgive me for writing to you in English but my hand-writing is hard to read and the lady who is taking down my dictation does not have an easy command of German.  You have obliged me very much by sending me your review article on my book. I had… More

Correspondence with Hans-Georg Gadamer Concerning Wahrheit und Methode

– "Correspondence with Hans-Georg Gadamer Concerning Wahrheit und Methode," Independent Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 2 (1978).
But what is the basis of these and similar difficulties which I encountered in reading your book 9. You are fundamentally concerned with “Wirkungsgeschichte,” with something which is not necessarily a theme of the interpreter (432); you see what… More

On Plato’s Apology of Socrates and Crito

– "On Plato's Apology of Socrates and Crito," Essays in Honor of Jacob Klein, St. John's College, 1976.
Excerpt: The Apology of Socrates is the only Platonic work with Socrates in the title.  Yet Socrates is visibly the chief character in all Platonic dialogues: all Platonic dialogues are “apologies” of or for Socrates.  But the Apology of… More

Xenophon’s Anabasis

– "Xenophon's Anabasis," Interpretation, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Spring 1975).  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: Xenophon’s Anabasis seems today to be regarded universally as his most beautiful book. I do not quarrel with this judgment. I merely wonder what its grounds are. The question is obviously reasonable; in the eighteenth century, quite a few… More

The Three Waves of Modernity

– "The Three Waves of Modernity," Political Philosophy: Six Essays, ed. Hilail Gildin, Pegasus-Bobbs-Merrill, 1975.
Excerpt: The crisis of modernity reveals itself in the fact, or consists in the fact, that modern western man no longer knows what he wants–that he no longer believes that he can know what is good and bad, what is right and wrong.  Until a few… More

Preliminary Observations on the Gods in Thucydides’ Work

– "Preliminary Observations on the Gods in Thucydides' Work," Interpretation, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Winter 1974).  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: For Thucydides the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians was, as he expected from the beginning, the most noteworthy motion so to speak, the greatest motion of all times which affected all human beings. He gives a two-fold proof of his… More

Introductions to Morgenstunden and An die Freunde Lessings

– Introductions to Morgenstunden and An die Freunde Lessings as well as Sache Gottes oder die gerettete Vorsehung, Moses Mendelssohn: Gesammelte Schriften Jubilaumsausgabe, Band 3, 1974.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: Gesammelte Schriften, Band 2.

Note on the Plan of Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil

– "Note on the Plan of Nietzsche's Beyond Good and Evil," Interpretation, Vol. 3, No. 2-3 (Winter 1973).  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: Beyond Good and Evil always seemed to me to be the most beautiful of Nietzsche’s books. This impression could be thought to be contradicted by his judgement, for he was inclined to believe that his Zarathustra is the most profound book that… More

Introductory Essay to Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism

– "Introductory Essay," Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism, by Hermann Cohen, 1972.  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: I doubt whether I am the best mediator between Hermann Cohen (1842-1918) and the present-day American reader.   I grew up in an environment in which Cohen was the center of attraction for philosophically minded Jews who were devoted to Judaism; he… More

Niccolo Machiavelli

– History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, Rand McNally, 1963.  Second Edition: Rand McNally, 1972.  Third Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Excerpt: Men often speak of virtue without using the word but saying instead “the quality of life” or “the great society” or “ethical” or even “square.” But do we know what virtue is? Socrates arrived at the… More

Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Political Philosophy

– "Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Political Philosophy," Interpretation, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer 1971).  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: Whoever is concerned with political philosophy must face the fact that in the last two generations political philosophy has lost its credibility. Political philosophy has lost its credibility in proportion as politics itself has become more… More

On the Euthydemus

– "On the Euthydemus," Interpretation, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Summer 1970).
Excerpt: From the Crito we are led to the Euthydemus by the consideration that the Euthydemus contains the only other conversation between Socrates and Kriton. The two dialogues stand indeed at opposite poles. The Euthydemus is the most bantering, not to say… More

A Giving of Accounts

– "A Giving of Accounts," with Jacob Klein, The College, Vol. 22, No. 1 (April 1970).
Excerpt: I must begin with an introduction to my introduction.  Some faculty members, I was told, had misgivings about this meeting.  The only ones which are justified concern this question: Is it proper for people to talk about themselves in public?  The… More

Machiavelli and Classical Literature

– "Machiavelli and Classical Literature," Review of National Literatures, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring 1970).
Excerpt: I shall speak somewhat less briefly on La Vita de Castruccio Castracani da Lucca, For this graceful little work reveals Machiavelli s moral taste in a more direct or simple and more condensed manner than his great works. At the same time it reveals… More

Greek Historians

– "Greek Historians," review of Greek Historical Writing: A Historiographical Essay Based on Xenophon's "Hellenica," by W. P. Henry, Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 21, No. 4 (June 1968).
Excerpt: The author starts from the premiss that “the most important aspect of the study of history is . . . historiography.” He means by this that the most important aspect of the study of the political history of classical Greece is the critical… More

Notes on Lucretius

– "Notes on Lucretius," Liberalism Ancient and Modern, Basic Books, 1968.  Reprint: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Excerpt: Lucretius’ work is a poetic exposition of Epicurean philosophy. The reader who opens the book for the first time and peruses its opening does not know through firsthand knowledge that it is devoted to the exposition of Epicureanism. The poet… More

On the Minos

– Liberalism Ancient and Modern, Basic Books, 1968.  Reprint: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Excerpt: The Minos has come down to us as a Platonic work immediately preceding the Laws. The Laws begins where the Minos ends: the Minos ends with a praise of the laws of the Cretan king Minos, the son and pupil of Zeus, and the Laws begins with an… More

Natural Law

– "Natural Law," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 2 (1968).   Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: Natural law, which was for many centuries the basis of the predominant Western political thought, is rejected in our time by almost all students of society who are not Roman Catholics.  It is rejected chiefly on two different grounds.  Each of… More

John Locke as “Authoritarian”

– "John Locke as 'Authoritarian,'" review of John Locke: Two Tracts on Government, by Philip Abrams, Intercollegiate Review, Vol. 4, No. 1 (November-December 1967).
Excerpt: The question regarding the Hobbianism of the young Locke may be said to be of sonic importance with a view to the fundamental question regarding the political philosophy of the mature or old Locke, to the question which would have to be stated as… More

Notes on Maimonides’ Book of Knowledge

– "Notes on Maimonides' Book of Knowledge," Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to Gershom G. Scholem on His Seventieth Birthday by Pupils, Colleagues, and Friends, Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1967.  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: If it is true that the Guide of the Perplexed is not a philosophic book but a Jewish book, it is surely not a Jewish book in the same manner in which the Mishneh Torah is a Jewish book.  Maimonides has made clear the difference between these two… More

A Note on Lucretius

– "A Note on Lucretius," Natur und Geshichte: Karl Lowith zum 70, Geburtsag.  W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1967.  Reprinted in "Notes on Lucretius," Liberalism Ancient and Modern.
Excerpt: Lucretius’ work is a poetic exposition of Epicurean philosophy. The reader who opens the book for the first time and peruses its opening does not know through firsthand knowledge that it is devoted to the exposition of Epicureanism. The poet… More

Preface to the English Translation of Spinoza’s Critique of Religion

– "Preface to the English Translation," Spinoza's Critique of Religion, trans. E. M. Sinclair, Schocken Books, 1965.  Reprinted in English translation of Spinoza's Critique of Religion and Liberalism Ancient and Modern.
Excerpt: It is safer to try to understand the low in the light of the high than the high in the light of the low. In doing the latter one necessarily distorts the high, whereas in doing the former one does not deprive the low of the freedom to reveal itself… More

Review of Samuel I. Mintz: The Hunting of Leviathan

– Review of The Hunting of Leviathan: Seventeenth-Century Reactions to the Materialism and Moral Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes, by Samuel I. Mintz, Modern Philology, Vol. 62, No. 3 (February 1965).
Excerpt: Hobbes was attacked in the first place on account of his materialism, materialism being regarded by all of his critics as the “main root of atheism” (p. 67). Hobbes’s materialism is most vulnerable to attack since “he did not… More

Review of C. B. Macpherson: The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism

– Review of The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism, by C. B. Macpherson, Southwestern Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 1 (June 1964).  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: This serious and lucidly written book starts from the contemporary crisis in political theory which is diagnosed by the author as a crisis of the theory of liberal democracy.  That crisis cannot in his view be overcome by a return to the classic… More

Marsilius of Padua

– "Marsilius of Padua," History of Political Philosophy, ed., Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, Rand McNally, 1963.  Second Edition: Rand McNally, 1972.  Third Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Excerpt: As regards the principles of political philosophy, Marsilius presents himself as a strict follower of Aristotle, “the divine philosopher” or “the pagan sage.” He explicitly agrees with Aristotle regarding the purpose of the… More

Plato

– "Plato," History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, Rand McNally, 1963.  Second Edition: Rand McNally, 1972.  Third Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Excerpt: The Nocturnal Council is to be for the city what the mind is for the human individual. To perform its function its members must possess above everything else the most adequate knowledge possible of the single end at which all political action… More

Introduction to History of Political Philosophy

– "Introduction," History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, Rand McNally, 1963.  Second Edition: Rand McNally, 1972.  Third Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Excerpt: Today “political philosophy” has become almost synonymous with “ideology,” not to say “myth.” It surely is understood in contradistinction to “political science.” The distinction between political… More

Perspectives on the Good Society

– "Perspectives on the Good Society," Criterion, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Summer 1963).  Reprinted in Liberalism Ancient and Modern.
Excerpt: Not a few people who have come to despair of the possibility of a decent secularist society, without having been induced by their despair to question secularism as such, escape into the self and into art.  The “self” is obviously a… More

How to Begin to Study The Guide of the Perplexed

– "How to Begin to Study The Guide of the Perplexed," Moses Maimonides: The Guide of the Perplexed, trans. Shlomo Pines, University of Chicago Press, 1963.  Reprinted in Liberalism Ancient and Modern.
Excerpt: The simple statement of the plan of the Guide suffices to show that the book is sealed with many seals.  At the end of its Introduction, Maimonides describes the preceding passage as follows: “It is a key permitting one to enter places the… More

Replies to Schaar and Wolin

– "Replies to Schaar and Wolin," American Political Science Review, Vol 57, No. 1 (March 1963).
Excerpt: The critique of my Epilogue by Professors Schaar and Wolin is distinguished by the fact that it is, as far as I know, the most acrimonious critique hitherto written of what I stand for. Critiques of this kind were to be expected. In scholarship as… More

An Epilogue

– "An Epilogue," Essays on the Scientific Study of Politics, ed. Herbert J. Storing, Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1962.  Reprinted in Liberalism Ancient and Modern.
Excerpt: There is, then, more than a mysterious pre-established harmony between the new political science and a certain version of liberal democracy. The alleged value-free analysis of political phenomena is controlled by an unavowed commitment built into the… More

Liberal Education and Responsibility

– "Liberal Education and Responsibility," Education: The Challenge Ahead, ed. C. Scott Fletcher, Norton, 1962.  Reprinted in Liberalism Ancient and Modern.
Excerpt: In the light of philosophy, liberal education takes on a new meaning: liberal education, especially education in the liberal arts, comes to sight as a preparation for philosophy.  This means that philosophy transcends gentlemanship.  The gentleman… More

“Relativism”

– "Relativism," Relativism and the Study of Man, ed. Helmut Schoeck and James W. Wiggins, Van Nostrand, 1961.  Reprinted in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism.
Excerpt: “Relativism” has many meanings. In order not to become confused by the “blind scholastic pedantry” that exhausts itself and its audience in the “clarification o£ meanings” so that it never meets the nonverbal… More

Comment on W. S. Hudson: The Weber Thesis Re-examined

– "Comment on W. S. Hudson: The Weber Thesis Re-examined," Church History, Vol. 30, No. 1 (March 1961).
Excerpt: This meeting, I gather, is concerned with the need for reinterpretation. I am not at all certain that reinterpretation is a universal necessity, i.e., that there cannot be final or definitive interpretations especially in those areas of historical… More

On the Basis of Hobbes’s Political Philosophy

– "On the Basis of Hobbes's Political Philosophy," What Is Political Philosophy?, The Free Press, 1959.  First printing of English original of "Les fondements de la philosophie politque de Hobbes," Critique, Vol. 10, No. 83 (April 1954).
Excerpt: We begin by wondering why we should study Hobbes.  This question implies that we doubt whether Hobbes’s teaching is the true teaching.  It implies, therefore, that our perspective differs from his.  Hence our possible study of Hobbes is… More

Restatement on Xenophon’s Hiero

– "Restatement on Xenophon's Hiero," What Is Political Philosophy?  The Free Press, 1959.  Reprinted in On Tyranny.
Excerpt: A social science that cannot speak of tyranny with the same confidence with which medicine speaks, for example, of cancer, cannot understand social phenomena as what they are.  It is therefore not scientific.  Present day social science finds… More

What Is Political Philosophy?

– "What Is Political Philosophy?" What Is Political Philosophy, The Free Press, 1959.  Revised version of the Judah L. Magnes Lectures given at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem in December 1954-January 1955.  Hebrew translation published in Iyyun in April 1955.
Excerpt: When we describe the political philosophy of Plato and of Aristotle as classical political philosophy, we imply that it is the classic form of political philosophy. The classic was once said to be characterized by noble simplicity and quiet grandeur.… More

The Liberalism of Classical Political Philosophy

– "The Liberalism of Classical Political Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 12, No. 3 (March 1959).  Reprinted in Liberalism Ancient and Modern.  Review essay on E. A. Havelock: The Liberal Temper in Greek Politics.
Excerpt: Some readers may blame us for having devoted so much time and space to the examination of an unusually poor book. We do not believe that their judgment of the book is fair. Books like Havelock’s are becoming ever more typical. Scholarship,… More

Locke’s Doctrine of Natural Law

– "Locke's Doctrine of Natural Law," American Political Science Review, Vol. 52, No. 2 (June 1958).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Let us not be shocked by this shocking self-contra- diction but rather limit ourselves to noting that according to Locke’s most frequent assertion it is only knowledge of the sensibly perceived things-of the matter, the motion and the visible… More

Review of J. L. Talmon: The Nature of Jewish History

– Review of The Nature of Jewish History -- Its Universal Significance, by J. L. Talmon, Journal of Modern History, Vol. 29, No. 3 (September 1957).  Reprinted in Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: This is an earnest statement by a man who is both a Jew and a historian rather than a Jewish historian. According to him, the historian who studies the fate of the Jewish people cannot and need not go back behind the fact that the Jewish people was… More

Machiavelli’s Intention: The Prince

– "Machiavelli's Intention: The Prince," American Political Science Review, Vol. 51, No. 1 (March 1957).  Reprinted in Thoughts on Machiavelli (Ch. 2).
Excerpt: Let us follow this movement somewhat more closely. At first sight The Prince belongs to the traditional genre of Mirrors of Princes, which are primarily addressed to legitimate princes; and the most familiar case of the legitimate prince is the… More

How Farabi Read Plato’s Laws

– "How Farabi Read Plato's Laws," Mélanges Louis Massignon, Institut Francais de Damas, 1957, Vol. 3.  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: At first it seems as if Farabi meant to say that all insights which he ascribed to Plato were peculiar to Plato. What he actually says however is that Plato did not find the science which he desired among the sciences and arts which are known to the… More

Kurt Riezler, 1882-1955

– "Kurt Riezler, 1882-1955," Social Research, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 1956).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: In this work Riezler attempted to clarify the character that foreign politics had taken on during the long period of peace among the great European powers after 1871. He traced that character to the nature of foreign politics on the one hand, and the… More

Social Science and Humanism

– "Social Science and Humanism," The State of the Social Sciences, ed. Leonard D. White, University of Chicago Press, 1956.  Reprinted in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism.
Excerpt: Humanism is today understood in contradistinction to science, on the one hand, and to the civic art, on the other.  It is thus suggested to us that the social sciences are shaped by science, the civic art, and humanism, or that the social sciences… More

On a Forgotten Kind of Writing

– "On a Forgotten Kind of Writing," Chicago Review, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Winter-Spring 1954).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: In studying certain earlier thinkers, I became aware of this way of conceiving the relation between the quest for truth (philosophy or science) and society: Philosophy or science, the highest activity of man, is the attempt to replace opinion about… More

Maimonides’ Statement on Political Science

– "Maimonides' Statement on Political Science," Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 22 (1953).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Whereas the nomos entails a religion that is in the service of government, the divinely revealed law which is a subject of the same branch of political philosophy as the nomos puts government in the service of religion, of the true religion, of the… More

Walker’s Machiavelli

– "Walker's Machiavelli," review of Discourses of Niccolò Machiavelli, ed. L. J. Walker, Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 6, No. 3 (March 1953).
Excerpt: Walker is not the first to contend that Machiavelli’s achievement consists chiefly or exclusively in the discovery of a new method. In fact, it would appear that the view about Machiavelli which predominates today is a vague compromise between… More

On Locke’s Doctrine of Natural Right

– "On Locke's Doctrine of Natural Right," Philosophical Review, Vol. 61, No. 4 (October 1952).  Reprinted in Natural Right and History (Ch. 5B).
It is on the basis of Hobbes’s view of the law of nature that Locke opposes Hobbes’s conclusions.  He tries to show that Hobbes’s principle–the right of self-preservation–far from favoring absolute government, requires limited… More

Review of Yves R. Simon: Philosophy of Democratic Government

– Review of Philosophy of Democratic Government, by Yves R. Simon, New Scholasticism, Vol. 26, No. 3 (July 1952).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Simon’s philosophy of democratic government is chiefly, not to say exclusively, concerned with modern democracy, i.e., with a kind of democracy which operates within industrial mass society, and which is characterized by the party system.  he… More

The Origin of the Idea of Natural Right

– "The Origin of the Idea of Natural Right," Social Research, Vol. 19, No. 1 (March 1952).  Reprinted in Natural Right and History (Ch. 3).
Excerpt: To understand the problem of natural right, one must start not from a “scientific” understanding of political things but from a “natural” understanding of them, that is, from the way in which they present themselves in… More

Review of David Grene: Man in His Pride

– Review of Man in His Pride: A Study in the Political Philosophy of Thucydides and Plato, by David Grene, Social Research, Vol. 18, No. 3 (September 1951).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: He is more concerned with bringing to light and to life the hidden drama of the souls of Thucydides and Plato, or the human reality of fifth-century Athens as reflected in Thucydides’ and Plato’s minds, than with articulating their… More

The Social Science of Max Weber

– "The Social Science of Max Weber," Measure, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Spring 1951).  Reprinted in Natural Right and History  (Ch. 2).
Excerpt: Weber, who regarded himself as a disciple of the historical school came very close to historicism, and a strong case can be made for the view that his reservations against historicism were halfhearted and inconsistent with the broad tendency of his… More

Natural Right and the Historical Approach

– "Natural Right and the Historical Approach," Review of Politics, Vol. 12, No. 4 (October 1950).  Reprinted in Natural Right and History (Ch. 1).
Excerpt: THE attack on natural right* in the name of history takes in most cases the following form: natural right claims to be a right that is discernible by human reason and is universally acknowledged; but history (including anthropology) teaches us that… More

On the Spirit of Hobbes’s Political Philosophy

– "On the Spirit of Hobbes's Political Philosophy," Revue Internationale de Philosophie, Vol. 4, No. 14 (October 1950).  Reprinted in Natural Right and History (Ch. 3A).
Excerpt: Hobbes rejects the idealistic tradition on the basis of a fundamental agreement with it.  he means to do adequately what the Socratic tradition did in a wholly inadequate manner.  He means to succeed where the Socratic tradition had failed.  He… More

Review of J. W. Gough: John Locke’s Political Philosophy

– Review of John Locke's Political Philosophy, by J. W. Gough, American Political Science Review, Vol. 44, No. 3 (September 1950).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Gough’s view is the outcome of his method. He has tried to understand Locke historically, but his notion of what “historical” means, is much too narrow. His only remark on this subject is to the effect that “it is simply… More

Political Philosophy and History

– "Political Philosophy and History," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 10, No. 1 (January 1949).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Political philosophy is not a historical discipline. The philosophic questions of the nature of political things and of the best, or just, political order are fundamentally different from historical questions, which always concern individuals… More

How to Study Spinoza’s Theologico-Political Treatise

– "How to Study Spinoza's Theologico-Political Treatise," Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 17 (1948).  Reprinted in Persecution and the Art of Writing.
Excerpt: The reason why a fresh investigation of Spinoza’s Theologico-Political Treatise’ is in order, is obvious. The chief aim of the Treatise is to refute the claims which had been raised on behalf of revelation throughout the ages; and Spinoza… More

On the Intention of Rousseau

– "On the Intention of Rousseau," Social Research, Vol. 14, No. 4 (December 1947).
Excerpt: The antiquarian controversy about the intention of Rousseau conceals a political controversy about the nature of democracy. Modern democracy might seem to stand or fell by the claim that “the method of democracy” and “the method of… More

Review of Alfred Verdross-Rossberg: Grundlinien der antiken Rechts- und Staats-philosophie

– Review of Grundlinien der antiken Rechts- und Staats-philosophie, by Alfred Verdross-Rossberg, Social Research, Vol. 14, No. 1 (March 1947).  Reprinted in What is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: It goes almost without saying that the picture drawn by Verdross of Greek political thought comes nearer the truth than the national- socialist version, which played such a great role in national-socialist indoctrination. This does not mean that… More

Review of Ernst Cassirer: The Myth of the State

– Review of The Myth of the State, by Ernst Cassirer, Social Research, Vol. 14, No. 1 (March 1947).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: However one may have to judge this view of myth, Cassirer is certainly right in negatively characterizing philosophy proper by its “struggle against myth.” In Greek philosophy, he holds, that struggle found its culminating expression in… More

On a New Interpretation of Plato’s Political Philosophy

– "On a New Interpretation of Plato's Political Philosophy," Social Research, Vol. 13, No. 3 (September 1946).
Excerpt: Professor Wild’s recent book on Plato is not simply a historical work. His presentation of Plato’s doctrine of man is animated by the zeal of a reformer and is meant to bring about a radical reorientation of the “philosophy of… More

Review of Anton C. Pegis’ Edition of Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas

– Review of Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas, ed. Anton C. Pegis, Social Research, Vol. 13, No. 2 (June 1946).  Reprinted in What is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Pegis’ summary account of the problem with which Thomas was confronted and of his solution is clear, sober and, on most points, convincing. H e observes that “the basic issue at stake” was “the nature of wisdom,” or, in… More

Review of Heinrich A. Rommen: The State in Catholic Thought

– Review of The State in Catholic Thought: A Treatise in Political Philosophy, by Heinrich A. Rommen, Social Research, Vol. 13, No. 2 (June 1946).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Anyone who wishes to judge impartially of the legitimacy or the prospects of the great design of modern man to erect the City of Man on what appear to him to be the ruins of the City of God must familiarize himself with the teachings, and especially… More

Review of Leonardo Olschki: Machiavelli the Scientist

– Review of Machiavelli the Scientist, by Leonardo Olschki, Social Research, Vol. 13, No. 1 (March 1946).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: According to Olschki, however, Machiavelli was primarily interested in elaborating” a new science of man which anticipated in spirit and mental procedure Galileo’s foundation of a new science of nature,” and “his scientific… More

Review of John O. Riedl’s Edition of Errores Philosophorum

– Review of Errores Philosophorum, by Giles of Rome, ed. John O. Riedl, Church History, Vol. 15, No. 1 (March 1946).
Excerpt: The Errores is a valuable document of the thirteenth century conflict between the Christian teaching and the teaching of “the philosophers,” i.e., of Aristotle and the Islamic and Jewish Aristotelians. It consists chiefly of a compilation… More

Farabi’s Plato

– "Farabi's Plato," Louis Ginzberg Jubilee Volume, American Academy for Jewish Research, 1945.  Reprinted, revised and abbreviated, in Persecution and the Art of Writing.
Excerpt: Farabi followed Plato not merely as regards the manner in which he presented the philosophic teaching in his most important books.  He held the view that Plato’s philosophy was the true philosophy. To reconcile his Platonism with his adherence… More

On Classical Political Philosophy

– "On Classical Political Philosophy," Social Research, Vol. 12, No. 1 (February 1945).  Reprinted (revised) in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: TODAY the status of political philosophy is more precarious, and its meaning is more blurred, than at any time since political philosophy emerged many centuries ago, somewhere in Greece. Its present condition is sufficiently illustrated by the fact… More

Review of John Dewey: German Philosophy and Politics

– Review of German Philosophy and Politics (Revised Edition), by John Dewey, Social Research, Vol. 10, No. 4 (November 1943).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy.
Excerpt: In attacking German philosophy Dewey defends not simply the cause of democracy, and international order, but a particular interpretation of that cause–his own philosophical doctrine. He seems to think that democracy is as much bound up with a… More

Review of S. B. Chrimes’s Edition of De Laudibus Legum Angliae

– Review of De Laudibus Legum Angliae, by Sir John Fortescue, ed. S. B. Chrimes, Columbia Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 6 (September 1943).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: The setting stands in a somewhat melancholy contrast with the content: the conversation in which the English institutions are so highly praised, takes place while the two participants are in exile owing to the civil war then raging in England. The… More

The Law of Reason in the Kuzari

– "The Law of Reason in the Kuzari," Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 13 (1943).  Reprinted in Persecution and the Art of Writing.
Excerpt: Every student of the history of philosophy assumes, tacitly or expressly, rightly or wrongly, that he knows what philosophy is or what a philosopher is. In attempting to transform the necessarily confused notion with which one starts one’s… More

Review of E. E. Powell: Spinoza and Religion

– Review of Spinoza and Religion, by E. E. Powell, Social Research, Vol. 9, No. 4 (November 1942).  Reprinted in What Is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: An adequate understanding of Spinoza’s philosophy in general and his political philosophy in particular presupposes perfect clarity about his attitude toward religion. Has the first part of the Ethics to be taken at its face value, that is, as… More

Review of C. H. McIlwain: Constitutionalism, Ancient and Modern

– Review of Constitutionalism, Ancient and Modern, by C. H. McIlwain, Social Research, Vol. 9, No. 1 (February 1942).  Reprinted in What is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: This book surveys those stages in the growth of constitutionalism which are most relevant “to the political problems facing us here and now” (p. vii).  There is a preliminary discussion, in which a sketch of the peculiar character of… More

Review of Karl Lowith: From Hegel to Nietzsche

– Review of Von Hegel bis Nietzsche, by Karl Lowith, Social Research, Vol. 8, No. 4 (November 1941).  Reprinted in What is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: This book should be of interest to all who wish to understand the emergence of European, and in particular of German, nihilism.  Its subject may be said to be the transformation of European humanism, as exemplified by Goethe and Hegel, into German… More

Persecution and the Art of Writing

– "Persecution and the Art of Writing," Social Research, Vol. 8, No. 4 (November 1941).  Reprinted in Persecution and the Art of Writing.
Excerpt: In a considerable number of countries which, for about a hundred years, have enjoyed a practically complete freedom of public discussion, that freedom is now suppressed and replaced by a compulsion to coordinate speech with such views as the… More

Review of C. E. Vaughan: Studies in the History of Political Philosophy

– Review of Studies in the History of Political Philosophy, by C. E. Vaughan, Social Research, Vol. 8, No. 3 (September 1941).  Reprinted in What is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: Vaughan is guided by a philosophy of history, but he is not a philosophic historian. He is a dogmatic historian. He starts from a settled and even passionately asserted view concerning the problems of political philosophy and their solutions; and the… More

Review of R. H. S. Crossman: Plato Today

– Review of Plato Today, by R. H. S. Crossman, Social Research, Vol. 8, No. 2 (May 1941).  Reprinted in What is Political Philosophy?
Excerpt: The intention of this book is described by the author in the following terms: “I am a democrat and a Socialist who sees Fascism rejected and democracy defended on quite inadequate grounds; and it is because I realize that our greatest danger… More

The Literary Character of the Guide for the Perplexed

– "The Literary Character of the Guide for the Perplexed," Essays on Maimonides, ed. S. W. Baron, Columbia University Press, 1941.   Reprinted in Persecution and the Art of Writing.
Excerpt: Among the many historians who have interpreted Maimonides’ teaching, or who are making efforts to interpret it, there is scarcely one who would not agree to the principle that that teaching, being essentially medieval, cannot be understood by… More

Review of James T. Shotwell: The History of History

– Review of The History of History, by James T. Shotwell, Social Research, Vol. 8, No. 1 (February 1941).
Excerpt: There are two ways in which one may attempt to elucidate the meaning of history. One may engage in a quest for the causes of historical phenomena as such, that is, in a philosophy of history.  Or one may raise the more elementary question of how… More

The Spirit of Sparta or the Taste of Xenophon

– "The Spirit of Sparta or the Taste of Xenophon," Social Research, Vol. 6, No. 4 (November 1939).
Excerpt: Xenophon’s treatise Constitution of the Lacedemonians appears to be devoted to praise of the Spartan constitution, or, which amounts to the same thing, of the Spartan mode of life.  A superficial reading gives the impression that his… More

On Abravanel’s Philosophical Tendency and Political Teaching

– "On Abravanel's Philosophical Tendency and Political Teaching," Isaac Abravanel: Six Lectures, ed. J. B. Trend and H. Leowe, Cambridge University Press, 1937.  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.
Abravanel may be called the last of the Jewish philosophers of the Middle Ages. He belongs to the Middle Ages, as far as the framework and the main content of his doctrine are concerned. It is true that there are features of his thought which distinguish it… More

Eine vermißte Schrift Farabis

– "Eine vermißte Schrift Farabis," Monatsschrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, Vol. 80, No. 1 (January 1936).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.

Maimonides’s Doctrine of Prophecy and Its Sources

– "Maimonides's Doctrine of Prophecy and Its Sources," Le Monde Oriental (Uppsala), Vol. 28 (1934).  Reprinted in Philosophy and Law.
Excerpt: One can with a certain right call Maimonides’s position “medieval religious Enlightenment.”  With a certain right: namely if one accepts the view that not only for the modern Enlightenment–and thus for the Age of… More

Quelques Remarques sur la Science Politique de Hobbes

– "Quelques Remarques sur la Science Politique de Hobbes a propos du livre recent de M. Lubienski," trans. Alexandre Kojève, Recherches Philosphiques, Vol. 2 (April 1933).  Original Typescript: "Einige Anmerkungen uber die Politische Wissenschaft des Hobbes."  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 3.

The Testament of Spinoza

– "The Testament of Spinoza," Bayerische Israelitische Gemeindezeitung, Vol. 8, No. 21 (1 November 1932).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 1.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: Neutrality toward Spinoza set in once one was able to admit that the “modern worldview,” whose victory was decisively aided by Spinoza’s metaphysics, does not, or does not entirely, coincide with this metaphysics.  but even at this… More

Notes on Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political

– "Notes on Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political," Archiv fur Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Vol. 67, No. 6 (August-September 1932).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 3.  Reprinted in Heinrich Meier, Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue, University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Excerpt: [1] The treatise by Schmitt serves the question of the “order of the human things” (95), that is, the question of the state. In view of the fact that in the present age the state has become more questionable than it has been for centuries… More

Introductions to Phadon

– Introducitons to Phadon, Abhandlung von der Unkorperlichkeit der menschlichen Seele, Uber einen schriftlichen Aufsatz des Herrn de Luc and Die Seele, Moses Mendelssohn Gesammelte Schriften: Jubiläumsausgabe: Band 2, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1932.  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.

Review of On the Progress of Metaphysics

– Review of On the Progress of Metaphysics, by Julius Ebbinghaus, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, Vol. 52 (December 27, 1931).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: We are used to people showing just scorn and mockery for the belief in progress.  However, we are also used to these very scorners and mockers having no qualms from the outset about raising modern reservations against the past.  Since the owl of… More

Introductions to Pope ein Metaphysiker!

– Introductions to "Pope ein Metaphysiker!" "Sendschreiben an den Herrn Magister Lessing in Leipzig," "Kommentar zu den 'Termini der Logik' des Mose ben Maimon," and "Abhandlung über die Evidenz," Moses Mendelssohn Gesammelte Schriften: Jubiläumsausgabe: Band 2, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1931.  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.

Franz Rosenzweig and the Academy for the Science of Judaism

– "Franz Rosenzweig and the Academy for the Science of Judaism," Judische Wochenzeitung fur Kassel, Hessen und Waldeck, Vol. 6, No. 49 (13 December 1929).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: Franz Rosenzweig’s idea, according to his express intention, was meant to be political.  This man, who as a thinker and a scholar made such great contributions to science, was not concerned with science as something “self-evident,”… More

Review of The Future of an Illusion

– Review of The Future of an Illusion, by Sigmund Freud, Der Judische Student, Vol. 25, No. 4 (August 1928).  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: The following remarks are meant as a call to develop the Zionist ideology in a direction in which it is not completely developed.  They follow The Future of an Illusion by Sigmund Freud, which  appeared a year ago.  They do so neither in order to… More

On the Bible Science of Spinoza and His Precursors

– "On the Bible Science of Spinoza and His Precursors," Korrespondenzblatt des Vereins zur Grundung Erhaltung einer Akademie fur die Wissenschaft des Judentums, Vol. 7 (1926).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 1.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: Spinoza’s bible science is first of all a fact in the history of the sciences.  Spinoza has the undisputed merit of having established Bible science as a science “free of presuppositions.”  In the pertinent chapters of the… More

Biblical History and Science

– "Biblical History and Science," Judische Rundschau, Vol 30, No. 88 (November 10, 1925).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: If, in the interest of genuine science, Dubnow turns against extraneous dogmas put ahead of science or dragged along by tradition, then, by so doing, he undoubtedly also turns against Jewish tradition.  What is at stake is the central dogma of the… More

Ecclesia Militans

– "Ecclesia Militans," Judische Rundschau, Vol. 30, No. 36 (May 8, 1925).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: The Jewish Church–as, here and elsewhere, we refer to the separatist Orthodoxy of Frankfurt–is on the offensive.  This fact is of interest to us, but it does not frighten us.  We know all too well that not all offensives succeed. … More

Comment on Weinberg’s Critique

– "Comment on Weinberg's Critique," Der Judische Student, Vol. 22, No. 1-2 (February 1925).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 1.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: What I presented at camp was the very preliminary result of my long-standing preoccupation with the problem of Zionism.  Since I never had the opportunity, either inside or outside the Kartell, for a real debate with the Zionist public, there was no… More

On the Argument with European Science

– "On the Argument with European Science," Der Jude, Vol. 8, No. 10 (October 1924).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: Now and in future, this journal will report on works on the science of religion that, for the most part, are not animated by any specifically Jewish interest.  What right do we have to do this?  What right do we have to endanger our so fragile… More

Quellen des Zionismus

– "Quellen des Zionismus," Judische Rundschau, Vol. 29, No. 77-78, 79 (Sept. 26, Oct. 3 1924).

Review of Contemporary Religious Thinkers

– Review of Contemporary Religious Thinkers, by Albert Levkowitz, Der Jude, Vol. 8, No. 7 (July 1924).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: In Contemporary Religious Thinkers: On Changes in the Modern Views of Life, which is a detailed review of the literature, Albert Levkowitz wants to acquaint with contemporary philosophy those Jewish readers who, because of their other pursuits, have… More

Zionism and Orthodoxy

– "Zionismus und Orthodoxie," Judische Rundschau, Vol. 29, No. 50 (June 24, 1924).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 1.

Cohen’s Analysis of Spinoza’s Bible Science

– "Cohens Analyse der Bibel-Wissenchaft Spinozas," Der Jude, Vol. 8, No. 5-6 (May-June 1924).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 1.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: It is typical of Hermann Cohen’s style that he couches the critique of an idea in the critique of the possibly accidental expression of that idea.  This is the way of our intensive and penetrating traditional art of interpretation, which takes… More

Sociological Historiography?

– "Soziologische Geschichtsschreibung?" Der Jude, Vol. 8, No. 3 (March 1924).  Reprinted Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: Every author is measured first of all by the standard that he expressly acknowledges in his own work.  The best way to dispose of an author is therefore to prove that he fails to achieve what he strives for. The ideal of knowledge striven for in… More

Paul de Lagarde

– "Paul de Lagarde," Der Jude, Vol. 8, No. 1 (January 1924).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: The Jew is in need of an extraordinary measure of reflectiveness; while for the peoples of the world a distance is given from the start, he must first attain it by a great effort.  This reflectiveness is especially characteristic of the Zionist. … More

The Zionism of Nordau

– "Der Zionismus bei Nordau," Der Jude, Vol. 7, No. 10-11 (October-November 1923).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: It is the view of political Zionism that the plight of the Jews can only be alleviated by the establishment of a Jewish state, by the consolidation of the power of Jewish individuals into the power of the Jewish people.  In pursuit of this end,… More

A Note on the Discussion of “Zionism and Anti-Semitism”

– "Anmerkung zur Diskussion uber Zionismus und Antisemitismus," Judische Rundschau, Vol. 28, No. 83-84 (Sept. 28, 1923).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: No fact has been more decisive for the liberation of the Jewish spirit from its galut-mentality [Galuth-Gesinnung] than that disruption of Jewish solidarity which found its most popular expression in Herzl’s “Mauschel”. It may even… More

Review of The Holy

– Review of Das Heilige, by Rudolf Otto, Der Jude, Vol. 7, No. 4 (April 1923).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften: Band 2.

Response to Frankfurt’s “Word of Principle”

– "Antwort auf das 'Prinzipielle Wort' der Frankfurter," Judische Rundschau, Vol. 28, No. 9 (30 Jan. 1923).  Reprinted in Gesammelte Schriften Band 2.  Reprinted in Leo Strauss: The Early Writings.
Excerpt: One should not let oneself be deceived by the political demands of Walter Moses.  What he calls “political” is political in the ancient sense of the word, rather than in the modern sense that is relevant for us.  What is hidden behind… More